Miscellaneous Issues--Rights of Non Muslims in Islam

In the era of the four righteous Caliphs, right after the death of our Noble Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him

During the reign of Ali Ibn Abi Taleb (4th ruler of Islamic state after the prophet), he lost his Shield in a battle and a Jew took it. After knowing that the Jew had it, the Prince of the Believers, as Islamic rulers were called, asked the Jew to give him the shield back. The Jew refused and insisted that this shield belonged to him and not Ali, may Allah be pleased with him, Ali took the case to court.
As the Jew and Ali, may Allah be pleased with him, stood before of the judge called Shuraih. The judge said:”Please lay your case O Aba AlHassan (meaning The father of AlHasan, this way of figure of speech in Arabic is called Kunya, that is when you call a man by his son’s name and it is considered a sign of friendship and closeness)”. While he called the Jew with his name (without titles) Ali, may Allah be pleased with him, refused that the judge privileged him by calling him in a way to show friendship and did not do the same thing with the Jew.
After each one finished stating his case, the judge decided that by the Islamic law and due to lack of proof that the shield belonged to Ali Ibn Abi Taleb, then the Jew owns it.
The Jew could not believe that Justice would be applied in the Islamic state even against Ali, the Caliph who is at the same time the Prophet’s beloved and trusted cousin. Then the Jew said: “I declare that there is but one God and that Muhammad is His Prophet. O Prince of the believers the shield was yours, I followed your army while you were leaving “Seffeen” and it fell from your camel “ALAwrak””
Ali said: “You became a Muslim so I give it to you”
Another famous story is the story of a Copt and Amr Ibn Al-'As, the ruler of Egypt. The ruler's son, proud of his parentage, hit the Copt's son with a whip. The Copt complained to Omar Ibn Al-Khattab, who then summoned Amr and his son to Madinah. Umar gave the whip to the Copt’s son and said, “Now whip this son of noble parents” After he had done so, Umar said, “Now whip the bald head of Amr, because his son beat you on account of his father's authority.” The Copt repaid, “I have already whipped the person who whipped me.” Then 'Umar turned his face to Amr and uttered his everlasting words, “O Amr, since when do you treat as slaves those who were born as free men?”
What is most remarkable about this incident is the fact that people ruled by Islamic officials were so aware of their humanity and honor that even a slap was totally inadmissible. On the other hand, in Roman and other times, many similar and even worse injustices went unpunished, for the injured party could at make any protest or complaint. In the Islamic state, however, a citizen could take advantage of his rights and self respect, even if he had to travel from Egypt to Madinah to do so. Such a journey would not be in vain, for he could be sure that his case would be given due consideration and that his complaint would be dealt with justly.
Caliph Umar Ibn Al-Khattab had appointed Sabi Qaysariyyah in bookkeeping and managing other affairs of Muslims.
After the conquest of Egypt, Umar Bin Al-As, the eminent companion of our noble Prophet, peace and blessing be upon him, had appointed and allowed the Byzantines to remain in their various important posts.
Caliph Umar Ibn El-Khattab, who was stabbed by a non-Muslim called Abu Lulu, a Zoroastrian and a fire worshipper. The Caliph, on this death bed due to his severe wound, he admonished people around him in respect of the rights of non-Muslims in the following words: “Admonish whoever becomes Caliph after me concerning the fair treatment of non-Mislims. He must fulfill his pledge of protection towards them, and should fight for their rights and should not take more work from them beyond their capacity.”